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| The Invisible Society:
Women in Middle Eastern Culture
Courtney Spivey Existing in a world so distant from their
own, the experience of the Arab woman is truly an enigma the Western mind.
The first step in the investigation entails an analysis of women and
cultural values. With a clear understanding of the Islamic thought on
women, and knowledge of the importance of honor in Arab society, an idea
regarding the value of females in Middle Eastern culture begins to take
form. Augmented with an understanding of both men's perceptions of women
and women's perceptions of themselves, a clear picture of the lives of
Middle Eastern women develops. Next, the inquiry leads to an exploration of women in society. Perception of the position of females in the Arab social context is key. In examining the role of the female in society, realization of Middle Eastern society's split into "private" and "public" spheres will surface. In order to fully realize the female social posi tioning, an investigation into women's roles in each of these spheres must take place.
Islam stresses the idea of a public
morality, which is to be enforced collectively. Today, many perceive that
it is the government's job to enforce this morality. In light of this,
Islam has acquired a political nature, despite the original Islamic
sources' rare mention of government or state. 1 Islam cannot be the sole
reason for the position of women in the Muslim world since implementation
of Islamic codes vary from country to country.2 However, the Arabs have
legitimized their governments, including its relation to the status of
women, by linking them to religion.1 Because of the profound effect
religion has on government and culture, the position of women in the
Middle East cannot be understood without reference to Islam. A major component of the Islamic view on
women concerns the concept of desire. Differing from other religions such
as Christianity and Judaism, Islam does not see desire as a force that
must be eliminated or systematically regulated. Rather, one must employ it
in a way that coincides with what religious law dictates. For example,
sexual desire, exercised according to Muslim beliefs, ensures the
continuation of the human race. Sexual desires exerted outside of the
scope of Islam, however, can lead to destructive acts and work to destroy
the social order. Desire must be constantly steered in the right direction
to ensure that it is used properly. 2 Women are believed to be endowed with a
fatal sexual attraction. They are seen as sources of seduction who are
responsible for man's inability to resist them. However, because they are
considered the morally and intellectually inferior sex, it is their
sexuality that must be strictly controlled and regulated. In a society
that relies on external rather than internal moral enforcement, it is
believed that women must be hidden and sepa rated from men so that the
males are not overpowered by feminine sexual appeal. 3 Young females, in
whose every soul lies a temptress, must be modestly dressed, which has
evolved into the tradition of veiling. The custom of veiling involves covering the
entire body (including hair) except for the hands and face. Veiling has
become a symbol of female virtue and obedience to Allah, as well as an
integral part of the larger Islamic code stressing sexual segregation.4
Due to cultural pressures to dress "decently," even many non
-traditional women who do not believe in the justification behind the veil
feel compelled to wear one. 5 Veiling is a distinct example of how Islam
reinforces the perception of women as purely sexual beings who need to be
controlled. Islam is used as a vehicle to assert male
control and domination of women, often through the marital practices of
polygamy and repudiation. The Koran states "Marry of the women who
seem good to you, two, three, or four, and if ye cannot do justice [to so
many] then one [only]". 6 With this religious justification, many
Arab states have adopted laws legalizing polygamy. When a man takes an
additional wife, an action which does not require the consent of the
present wife or wives, the current wife may feel that she has failed in
several ways. She may be perceived to be a failure as a sexual being, a
characteristic which has previously been shown to be a vital aspect of her
very existence.7 Although most Middle Easterm societies have moved away
from the practice of polygamy, whether through legal or social practices,
this "stronghold of male authority" continues to be a force,
inasmuch as it remains a symbolic threat, in the Middle East today. 8 The policy of verbal repudiation, adopted
in some Arab states, is addressed many times in the Koran. Verse 20 of
Sura 4 states: "And if ye wish to exchange one wife for another and
ye have given into one of them a sum of money (however great) take nothing
from it." This passage exemplifies the arbitrariness of the
decisionas well as the perception that it is a fundamental right of a man
to divorce his wife. 9 In some cases, the husband must simply repeat the
formula of repudiation known as talaq and is not required to give a reason
for his decision, nor must he approach the courts with the matter. 10 The concept of honor plays a substantial
role in the lives of both men and women in the Middle East. As previously
explained, Middle Eastern society often revolves around the concept of
public morality. Within this type of society, honor is of supreme
importance. Fear of scandal is a major consideration in the daily lives of
many Arabs.11 Upholding
the honor of the family and protecting it from dishonor is a vital
responsibility. Many men see women as the weak link in the
chain that is the family's dignity. In order to safeguard the family's
honor, male kin believe they must keep a close watch on their female
relatives. 12 In the past, this has been facilitated by the restricted
nature of female activities. However, modern trends have led more women to
work outside of the home, presenting a fundamental problem for men. A man
may feel that he is dishonored and believed incapable of providing for his
family. 13 Also, his wife is placed in a public atmosphere where she is
more exposed and vulnerable to an attack on her honor, which is equivalent
to a attack on the honor of any man in her family. Fear of this leads most
men to carefully and strictly monitor their female relatives'
activities.14 Men's perception of women The concept of honor, as well as the
Islamic thought on women, combines to formulate the male perception of
womanhood. As previously explained, women are largely defined by virtue of
their sexuality. Most men see it as their responsibility to protect
feminine sexuality by strictly controlling women's actions. Men deem this
as necessary due to their perception that women are easily led by their
emotions and unable to manage their desires.15
Women are believed to be less astute and less capable as
managers or leaders. 16 These
views of woman penetrate through the "fashionable" trend of men
to speak of women's rights. Many
men express progressive views concerning the position of women society as
long as it does not effect the woman in their family. Those who have the
loudest voice when it comes to fighting for women's rights are often quite
reactionary when the issue hits close to home.17 As
a result women are still viewed as morally corruptible and in need of
supervision. Women's perception of women Women's views of themselves mirror those of
men in many ways. With a
fuller understanding of how Arab women view their position, it becomes
easier to comprehend the dynamics of their role. Many
women agree with the perception that they are highly sexual beings. In
addition to the fact that wearing a veil works to sustain their family's
honor,18 women also dress
"modestly" because they believe it helps to liberate them.
Veiling, along with the general segregation of the sexes, works to
desexualize women, allowing them greater freedom and mobility.19 The time that women do have in a single sex
environment is treated in a special way. When they have established a
"safe" distance from men, women have relative freedom in their
actions. The apparently conservative women might adorn themselves with
relatively risqué coverings such as revealing blouses and make -up.20
Women often take the time to beautify themselves and to appear as elegant
as possible when they know that they will only be in the company of other
females. In this environment, they are able to revel in each others'
attractiveness and freely express their admiration for one another. 21
Some types of situations during which women will be with one another
involve times of birth, death, or marital problems. They are quick to
offer support and condolence to each other when it is needed. 22 Female
bonding is an important haven in a world that has not always been pleasant
for women. Most women find remarkable comfort from one another in the male
dominated world in which they exist.23 When it comes to female employment, the
opinion varies among veiled and unveiled women. For ex ample, in a survey
conducted in Egypt, 33.7 percent of veiled women stated that women should
only work when there is economic need and 12.2 percent were totally
opposed to women working. Sixty-eight percent of unveiled women support a
woman's right to work.24 Generally, women do not define themselves through
their ability to help financially support their family. Rather, they often
more highly value the duties of housewives and mothers.25 Despite the fact that most Westerners would
consider the position of women in the Middle East as inferior, many women
enjoy the special treatment that they are granted by society. A vast
majority of women in the region would not want to completely alter their
social and cultural positions. 26 WOMEN IN SOCIETY An essential element to the understanding
of women's position in Middle Eastern society is the fact that men are in
control of official decision making. Men clearly dominate all facets of
life in the Arab states including economics, politics, and society.27
Women have a clear position in society; however, this position must always
remain in the shadow of the authoritative male. Women tend to have less
education as well as less experience in the public realm than a majority
of men. 28 Even in the realm of the family, a sphere where females play a
significant role, males continue to dominate. It is men who primarily
control marriage contracts, divorces and the acquisition of additional
wives.29 While men occupy the official position of
control in the Middle East, women do, nonetheless, possess their own role
in Arab society. As stated in literature from the Iranian Ministry of
National Guidance quoting Ayatollah Khomeini, "Women are not equal to
men, but neither are men equal to women...their roles in society are
complementary...each has certain distinct functions according to his or
her nature and constitution." 30 Due to the belief that men are more
capable leaders, their roles have primarily been in the "public
sphere." Simultaneously, women's position has continually been
directed into the "private" sphere which includes the do main of
family and home.31 It is important to understand the rationale
behind this view. Although many Western feminists would argue that
separate positions are inherently unequal, many Arab woman would disagree.
In fact, Islamic feminists feel that if Islam were "perfectly
realized" women would attain equality with men despite these
differences.32 The distinctions between the sexes have already
provided women with a few types of "power" positions. One
example of this is the role played by older women in marriages.
Elderly women have abundant access to information concerning young women.
This knowledge provides them with tremendous influence in decisions
involving who will be married to whom. Such influence presents them with a
position of power which would not have been available to them if it were
not for their principal position in the "private" realm.33 A vital feature of the position of women in
the public domain is veiling. Already mentioned in relation to its
significance in Islam, veiling plays a crucial part in sustaining the
separation of the distinct positions between men and women.
Expanding on the ideal of separate realms for the sexes comes the notion
of separate space. Many women veil themselves when they are outside
of the home in streets or shops. This is because they have entered the
"male sphere." They use the veil to express their
understanding that although they are in man's domain, they are
"invisible" and therefore are not violating the separation of
the sexes. 34 Further, a women risks social sanctions if she rebels
against the wearing of the veil. 35 The family is at the core of women's
position in Middle Eastern society. Furthermore, the family is the
centerpiece of society in Arab states. It is the basic unit from
which all other establishments revolve; it has shown great resilience and
proven to be especially successful in the Middle East. 36 As is
made apparent through the Arab proverb, "To forfeit one's family is
to forfeit one's dignity," the family is held in very high regard, 37
and is even considered "sacrosanct" by men. 38 The contemporary
Muslim view sees the family as responsible for the rearing of dedicate
Muslims instilled with the "proper" cultural values. This
responsibility rests on the shoulders of women. 39 Although women have the principal roles in
the family, it is nevertheless a sphere officially dominated by men. When
a female marries, she leaves her home to live with her husband. The family
is patriarchal; it is based around the father, his sons, their wives, and
their children. 40 Despite the physical separation of the bride from her
natal family, ties between females and their blood relatives are hardly
ever broken. Because of this, women often have a place to turn if severe
problems - such as divorce, death, or overall marital difficulties -
arise.41 As was previously mentioned, women hold a
central position in the family. The role of the wife in the family is
multi-faceted. It is the wife's responsibility to act as a sexual partner
to her husband, 42 and to maintain the household, i.e. prepare meals,
clean, wash clothes, etc. 43 Also, women, in their own way, work towards
sustaining the social status and position of their family. For example,
women may use social visits to other women to maintain this status.44 Perhaps the most crucial duty required of
women is that of bearing and raising children. The mother's job is not
simply to feed and protect her children - it goes much further than that.
Mothers are left with the imperative responsibility of rearing her
family's next generation. It is their duty to educate them in the culture
and religion that is the rock upon which their society stands. 45 Mothers
must produce the legacies of their family, the children who (if male) will
carry out the family name as well as help provide for her in years to
come. With this great responsibility comes a
degree of power. As stated by Andrea Rugh in her book Family in
Contemporary Egypt, women are "The central figures in the central
institution of the society; they control the organization of the domestic
domain and financial dispersals a good part if not all of the day, they
are potent forces in the communication between households, they control
those things that are most valued by the men- sex, honor, children, a
happy well-organized household." 46 Their position in this
"central institution" grants them specific powers. Some of these
power allotments involve marriages. 47 As previously mentioned, women hold a
position of power through their role in marriages. Mothers are the ones
with access to potential brides for their sons. The conversations between
the two women, not to mention the information gained by the mother about
the bride's looks, are as, if not more, important than the monetary
negotiations handled by the fathers.48 Although the responsibility
officially falls on the father, it is the son's mother who makes decisions
about the marriage and future family of her son. 49 Another more abstract aspect of women's
power concerns the control she holds over her husband. This power
manifests itself through obligations that a husband maintains with his
wife. The wife constructs these "dependency structures" which
allow her to impact her husband's activities. Many women work very hard on
these "structures," through which they gain a type of access to
the control that is otherwise dominated by men.50 Some women will take extensive measures to
ensure that they acquire a husband. Because virginity is a necessity to a
large majority of potential brides, some females who are not virgins have
doctors sew their hymens in order to appear "pure."51
Additionally, many women do not have the luxury of focusing on love or sex
when marrying. In an attempt to acquire a husband, some women will
overlook the fact that their mar riage will lack love and/or sex.52 Women are imparted with many significant
duties in the private realm of the family. The fact that they have been
placed in charge of such important responsibilities has influenced many
peoples' ideas regarding women's possible activities outside of the home.
Iranian writer Fereshteh Hashemt summarizes one view on the subject when
she writes, "Women have the heavy responsibility of procreation and
rearing a generation. God, therefore, absolves the woman from all economic
responsibilities so that she can engage herself in this prophetic and
divine act with peace in mind." 53 Women's role with regard to these
"economic responsibilities" is yet another element in
understanding the position of women in Middle Eastern society. As earlier mentioned, women and men are
divided into private and public realms respectively. Thus, the economy of
the Arab states is characterized by a gender-specific division of labor.
This idea asserts that males are in charge of providing for the family
while women's labor is performed at home. This division is derived from
the ideas that men are superior leaders and managers. Although it is the
prevalent belief in the Middle East today, some woman have crossed over
into what is often considered the man's realm. 54 Popular support for the
sexual division of labor limits the type of work that is available to
them. 55 A large majority of the jobs women acquire are in the fields of
medicine, teaching, and the social sciences. 56 When females enter the economic sphere and
step outside of their "isolation" in the private sphere, they
are effected in many ways. Along with working outside of the home comes a
social stigma. This causes many working women to have less self-confidence
than women who are unemployed. 57 Also, unfamiliarity with the work force
often causes new female workers to be quite self-conscious. This
self-consciousness can many times be seen in a worker's skirt which is a
little too short or long, or in an awkward headpiece, all of which she
employs in an attempt to "fit-in" and alleviate any discomfort
she feels. 58 Another effect of society's disapproval of female employment
is a heightened level of sexual harassment towards working women. 59 Some
women are made to endure groping of their bodies and other such
semi-sexual abuse. 60 The positive aspects of working, including
the earning of salaries, are not always enjoyed by employed women. For
example, some husbands may take complete control over their wife's
paychecks, not allowing them to enjoy the benefits of their labor.61
Another disadvantage which working women experience deals with the dual
nature of their labor. After finishing a full day's work, women arrive
home where their "real jobs" await them. A woman's household
responsibilities do not disappear when she gains employment outside of the
home. On the contrary, she must clean, prepare meals, supervise the
children, and perform all of her other household duties, in addition to
her outside employment. 62 Despite these drawbacks, some women favor
finding employment outside of the home. One of the reasons for this is the
rising economic need for women to work. 63 However, another justification
may be the fact that some women are beginning to view employment as a path
towards independence, freedom, self -actualization, equality,
participation in society and responsible enfranchisement. Many women from
the younger generation tend to stress the social and political rewards
that may be acquired from employment, in addition to the benefits of the
economic freedoms working provides. 64 On the other side of this argument are
women who do not support females working outside of the home. In a society
which respects women for their positions as mothers and wives, most women
do not recognize outside employment as important or as a goal they wish to
accomplish. 65 On the contrary, many of these women see formal employment
as below their social position and degrading. 66 They believe women should
work only in response to economic necessity. Some circumstances which
would constitute necessities are a husband's illness, absence in war, or
inability to support the family. 67 Whereas the opinions regarding women in the
work force is somewhat divided among women, a vast majority of men are
against women working outside of the home. Most There are further reasons why women are
encouraged to stay at home. Rising unemployment and tightening economic
conditions have helped to push the "back to home" bandwagon,
encouraging women to give up their jobs so that these opportunities for
employment can become available to men. 71 Also, the blame for
crowded transportation and low productivity has been placed upon women.
Proponents of a single-sex workplace also convey concerns that employed
women will undermine child raising and the family unit as a whole.72 CONCLUSION The issue of women in Middle Eastern society and culture is clearly multi-faceted one. In order to arrive at a true understanding of their position, a thorough examination into the various dynamics of Arab women's lives is crucial. This investigation began with an analysis of women and cultural values. Through this inquiry, an Islamic view of women as sexual beings emerges. In a society that is so deeply concerned with honor, it is considered to be the man's duty to control women to ensure that they do not act in a way that could harm the dignity of their families. The practices of veiling and separation of the sexes arise from the necessity for this control. The second step in this inquiry was an examination of women in society. Society in the Middle East is split into "public" and "private" spheres. The "private" sphere, in which women's lives are based, is made up of the family and home. Although men may have ultimate official control of this realm, women are able to use their position to exert some power. Although it is against overall public opinion, some women choose to enter the male dominated public realm by acquiring a job. Females who gain employment are often forced to endure negative consequences. Among women, the view on female employment is divided. While some are adamantly against it, others see working outside the home as liberating. With the completion of this investigation, a greater understanding of the position of women in Middle Eastern culture may be reached. NOTES: 1. Nazih Ayubi. Political Islam: Religion
and Politics in the Arab World. (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 1,3,35. 2. Valentine M. Moghadam. Modernizing Women
: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East. (London: Lynne Rienner
Publishers, 1993), p. 6. 3. Nazih Ayubi. Political Islam: Religion
and Politics in the Arab World. p.3. 4. Ibid. pp. 27-30. 5. Ibid. pp. 37-38, 41. 6. Fatima Mernissi. Beyond the Veil:
Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society. (Indianapolis, ID: Indiana
University Press, 1987), p. 142. 7. Mervat Hatem. "Egypt's Middle Class
in Crisis." Middle East Journal. Vol. 42, No. 3, (Summer 1988) pp.
416-417. 8. Bourhaina Shaaban. Both Right and Left
Handed: Arab Women Talk About Their Lives. (Indianapolis, IN: Indiana
University Press, 1988), p. 33. 9. Fatima Mernissi. Beyond the Veil:
Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society. p. 46. 10. Ibid. p. 48. 11. Bourhaina Shaaban. Both Right and Left
Handed: Arab Women Talk About Their Lives. p. 60. and Hinchcliffe, Doreen.
"Women and the Law in the United Arab Emirates." Ian Richard
Netton, ed. Arabia and the Gulf from Traditional Society to Modern States.
(New Jersey: Barnes and Noble, 1986.), p. 241. 12. Fatima Mernissi. Beyond the Veil:
Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society. p.49. 13. Doreen Hinchcliffe. "Women and the
Law in the United Arab Emirates." pp. 242-243. 14. Nazih Ayubi. Political Islam: Religion
and Politics in the Arab World. p. 43. 15. Mehran Kamrava. Culture, Society, and
Democracy in the Middle East. p. 41. 16. Nazih Ayubi. Political Islam: Religion
and Politics in the Arab World. p. 39. 17. Ibid. p. 41. 18. Mehran Kamrava. Culture, Society, and
Democracy in the Middle East. p. 41. 19. Ibid. p. 44. 20. Bourhaina Shaaban. Both Right and Left
Handed: Arab Women Talk About Their Lives. p p. 67-68. 21. Mehran Kamrava. Culture, Society, and
Democracy in The Middle East. p. 44. 22. Mervat Hatem. "Egypt's Middle
Class in Crisis." Middle East Journal. p. 419. 23. Bourhaina Shaaban. Both Right and Left
Handed: Arab Women Talk About Their Lives. p. 29. 24. Ibid. p. 30. 25. Andrea B. Rugh. Family in Contemporary Egypt. (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984), pp. 18 and 79.
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